Monday, November 11, 2019
Friday, November 1, 2019
SIMULATION
SIMULATION
Simulation
methods are ways to imitate of the operation of real-world systems. It
first requires that a model be developed representing characteristics,
behaviors and functions of the selected system or process. The model represents
the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the
system over time.
Simulation refers to the imitation of real-world
activities and processes in a safe environment. Simulations aim to provide
an experience as close to the ‘real thing’ as possible; however,
a simulated activity has the advantage of allowing learners to ‘reset’ the
scenario and try alternative strategies and approaches. This allows
learners to develop experience of specific situations by applying
their wider learning and knowledge.
Simulation is a very general and flexible
teaching approach that can be used in most disciplines, but this means that how
it is implemented will vary greatly. The key to simulation is that it is a
dynamic rather than fixed experience, with the scenario changing
realistically according to the actions of the participants and the participants
adapting as a result of changes to the scenario – in a sense, a
simulation is a mechanism for learners to obtain real-time
feedback on their actions.
STUDENT SEMINAR
STUDENT
SEMINAR
This is the best technique for some
situations. This is mostly used alone. When the topics are easy the teacher can
ask the students to prepare an essay on the topic and present it to the class. The
topics may be assigned for all the students. The papers may be read in the
class one after the
other. After the presentation the students
can ask questions and raise doubts. The paper reader will answer these
questions. The teacher will be the chairman or leader. The size of the class
will be small containing a maximum of 20 to 25 students. The class teacher acts
as a resource person too. In a typical seminar the strength may range from 6 to
25 and it usually has an appointed chairman and one or more resource persons.
It is a common of discussion group and is ideally suited for the study and
analysis of difficult problems over a period of time. The group increases in
its effectiveness when members become acquainted with each other, and not to
feel threatened by each other and are willing to express ideas frankly.
A seminar is a form of academic instruction,
either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional
organization. It has the function of bringing together small groups for
recurring meetings, focusing each time on
some particular subject, in which everyone present is
requested to actively participate. This is
often accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue with a seminar leader
or instructor, or through a more formal presentation of research. It is essentially
a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions can be raised and
debates can be conducted. Student seminars are the open presentations done by
the students before their peers and teachers. The word seminar is derived from
the Latin word seminarium, meaning “seed plot”
Some Tips for Seminar Preparation
• Choose a Good topic:
Choose a topic which will sustain your interest and will allow you to exhibit
enthusiasm during your presentation
• Keep your Audience in
Mind: The primary objective in giving a talk should be a communicate an
interesting idea to students who attend the seminar. This means that the talk should
be delivered in a way that students in attendance understand what you are
saying, so be mindful of their background.
• Tell a story/ anecdote:
Begin with solid motivation for your problem and plenty of illuminating
examples. Only after your audience understands what your topic is and why they should
care about it should you spend time working carefully through the relevant
science.
• Keep timing in mind:
Choose a topic that you can motivate and explicate comfortably in this window
of time.
Scoring Indicators for Evaluation of Seminar
1. Ability to Collect Data: Sufficient,
Relevant, Accuracy of facts
2. Ability to Prepare Seminar Paper:
Introduction, Content Organization, Conclusion
3. Presentation: Communication, Competence,
Fluency, Spontaneity
4. Understanding the Subject: Involvement in
the Discussion, Responding suitably, Capacity to handle differences of opinion
Advantages
1. Students develop the habit of reading more
books.
2. They develop the ability to collect
relevant information from different sources.
3. They are able to remove shyness and
contribute something in the class.
4. They develop a high degree of
participation.
5. They are able to face the students and
answer the questions boldly.
Disadvantages
1. It requires more time, more space and more
personnel.
2. Sometimes only a few students will
participate in seminar.
3. Unless the chairman is skilful, the
seminar easily degenerates into a question and answer session or a lecture.
ROLE PLAY
ROLE PLAY
Role
playing can be defined as an attempt to make a situation clear or to solve a
problem by uncharged dramatization. Role playing method is based on the
imitation of a role. This method is very helpful in bringing out changes in the
personalities of students including developing their social skills. It can be
used for various purposes. It can also be used to teach some simple topics to
younger children, e.g., solar system, balanced diet. Here the learners acts out
a problem in a completely spontaneous manner & through this explore the
problems by enacting problem situations. Role playing is dealing with problem
through actions. It is teaching techniques & is based on the idea that
acting out a role will help or enable a student to get an indepth view of a
problem that cannot be understood merely by reading a book or listening a
lecture. A role is patterned sequence of feelings , words & actions.
Purposes
of role playing
·
To motivate or launch units
·
To culminate units
·
To make clear historical or contemporary
situations in which there are conflicting emotions, different points of view,
biases, problems caused by differences in race, age, religion, nationality or
ethnic background, & so on.
·
To change attitudes
·
To teach values
·
To
teach content having to do with human relationships
·
To develop citizenship skills by showing both
the successful & unsuccessful methods we use to solve inter group &
interpersonal problems, by providing practice in taking real life roles, &
by practicing the democratic process.
Conducting
role playing
1. Preparation
o
Preparing for role playing – select
significant issues & brief the problem to be faced.
o
Selecting the players – as far as possible
select players who can identify with the roles. Select several casts & limit
each cast to two to five players.
o
Preparing the audience – be sure that the no
audience knows the situation & brief them how to behave.
o
Preparing the players – allow pupils plenty
of time to prepare. Be sure each players knows what he is going to do. Set the
stage.
2. Playing
of the roles
o
Keep the role playing short.
o
Let
the pupils play it out.
o
Do not evaluate the acting language.
o
Do not allow audience to interrupt.
3. Following
up the enactment
o
Discussion – discussion should analyse the
interpretations, solutions, reactions & so on. Try to evaluate what has
been learned in the discussion you may have to do some probing.
o
Re-enactment – it is wise to follow up a role
playing with a second or third role playing of the problem or situation.
Advantages
·
Develop deep understanding regarding various
process or phenomena in science.
·
Developing problem solving skills &
attitudes.
·
Explore subject matter in varied ways.
·
Develop interpersonal communication skill.
Limitations
·
Pupils who are not well prepared for role playing
may not take it seriously.
·
Role playing will not work unless the
atmosphere in the class room is supportive.
·
Pupils find it difficult to enter the roles
properly; especially they are not well briefed on the assignments.
·
Role playing is time consuming.
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
The
questioning is a technique as well as method of teaching. It is given by
Socrates. It serves various purpose in the teaching learning situation.
Questioning is also an important teaching skill. An effective teacher employs questioning
technique appropriately & also prepares good questions. Characteristics of
questioning are as follows:
a) Exploring
the entering behavior of the learners.
b) Provides
motivation & encouragement.
c) Makes
them active in the class room.
d) Establishes
a chain of learning by linking previous knowledge with new knowledge.
e) Provides
the direction to the mental process of learning.
f) Develops
thinking & analytical abilities of the learners.
g) Revise
the teaching content.
h) Evaluate
the effectiveness of teaching learning.
Types
of questions
1. Introductory
questions – these are used in introducing new topic or lesson to the students.
The introductory questions are based on the previous knowledge which is related
new knowledge. These questions employ from known to unknown maxim of teaching.
2. Developing
questions – after introducing new topic, some questions are asked to develop
the new content. It employs from logical to psychological technique of
teaching.
3. Recapitulatory
questions – in the learning process law of practice or law of exercise plays a
significant role in teaching new content. These type questions provide the
situations to practice the learned content. The question serves three purposes:
o
To consolidate the learners new knowledge.
o
To organize the ideas of facts at proper
place.
o
To provide well organized situation of the
content.
4. Evaluation
questions – at the end of lesson the teacher puts questions to test the
knowledge of the learners to assimilate whatever they could learn the content.
Generally oral questions are asked. These are short answer type. Sometimes
these questions are helpful to diagnose the weakness of learning. Remedial
instruction can be provided to learner by the teacher. It also function a feed
back to the teaching learning process.
Another
way to classify questions
Close
and Open Questions
Close
questions accept only a narrow range of responses and the number of responses
is limited. Close questions expect convergent thinking. Some close questions
allow only one “correct” or “right” answer. Answers to some close questions are
“yes” or “no”.
Open
questions emphasize divergent thinking and can accept a wide range of
responses. The number of answers to an open question may be two or more. Open
questions encourage pupils to use their past experience and justify their
opinions/thinking. It is important for teachers to choose whether to use close
or open questions depending on the teaching contexts.
Low
and High Order Questions
Questions
can be classified depending on whether they are low order or high order.
Examples of low order questions are perceiving questions (based on observation)
and recall questions (based on knowledge or memorisation of facts).
High
order questions encourage pupils to think rather than just to remember some
facts that they have previously acquired. Those questions often require higher
cognitive level. It is important to note that it does not mean high order
questions are always better than low order questions. After putting pupils’
understanding and contents of the lesson into consideration, a well-balanced
mixture of these questions is needed.
Characteristic
of good questions
An
effective teacher should be able to construct & use good questions.
Preparation of good question requires insight, experience, mental ability &
awareness of teaching problems. Teaching is a very social & dynamic
activity. A teacher should have the full understanding of good questions.
·
The language of questions should be simple
& easily understandable.
·
The form of the questions should be straight
forward. There should not be any ambiguity.
·
The questions should have the definite
meaning.
·
The questions should be in logical sequence.
It should be psychologically workable.
·
The questions should be thought provoking.
·
The questions should serve the purpose of
teaching learning.
·
The questions should have utility from
learners & content point of view.
PROJECT METHOD
PROJECT
METHOD
This method was
propounded by W.H Kilpatrick. This method was perfected by J.A Stevenson. The
base of this method lies in the philosophy of pragmatism. John Dewey wanted
that education should be for life and through life. This method emphasizes on
building a comprehensive unit around an activity which may be carried out in
school or outside. The essence of this method lies in the fact that a group of
students do a purposeful task. This implies the students undertake the activity
in a group or individually over a period of time. It may include a number of
activities and the end product is in the form of written report or a display.
“A project is a
whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment”- Dr. William
Kilpatrick.
“A project is a
problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting”. – Stevenson.
“A project is a
bit of real life that has been imported into school. – Ballard.
Thus, project is a
purposeful activity and planned activity which is achieved in social, natural
situations created in schools.
PRINCIPLES OF
PROJECT METHOD:-
1. The Principle of freedom.
2. The Principle of purpose.
3. The Principle of activity.
4. The Principle of interest.
5. The Principle of utility.
6. The Principle of correlation.
7. The Principle of sociability.
8. The Principle of experience.
9. The Principle of reality.
10. The Principle
of learning by doing.
TYPES OF
PROJECT:-
All the project
can be divided majorly into two types.
(i) Individual Project.
(ii) Group
Project.
According to W.H.
Kilpatrick projects are of four project.
i) Producer projects
ii) Consumer
projects
iii) Problem projects
iv) Drill
projects.
PRODUCER
PROJECT: -
Here the emphasis
is on actual construction of a material object or article.
CONSUMER
PROJECT: -
Here the emphasis
is gain on obtaining either direct or vicarious experience, such as reading and
learning stories, listening to a musical delectation etc.
PROBLEM
PROJECTS:-
The main purpose
is to solve a problem using intellectual process, such as determining the
density of a certain liquid.
DRILL PROJECTS:
-
This type of
project emphasizes on attaining a certain degree of skill in a reaction as
learning a vocabulary.
Steps of Project Method:-
1. PROVIDING A
SITUATION: -
The teacher
provides a situation to the students which must create same problems and
students must feel interested to work.
2. CHOOSING AND
PURPOSING: -
The students are
tempted to choose a project. The teacher should stimulate discussion by
suggestion. While choosing the project the teacher should bear in need that it
should be of real need to students. The purpose of project must be clearly
defined to the students. The project must be common and acceptable to all. In
case of wrong choosing, teacher must help students tactfully to see that the
students choose a better project. They should be asked to write down the
reasons for selection.
3. PLANNING: -
The success of the
project lies in the good planning. The students should plan out ht whole
project under the guidance of teacher. Every child must be encouraged to
participate in the discussion and make suggestion. All the students are
encouraged to write down the plan neatly and properly.
4. EXECUTING: -
Execution of
different activities to different students on the basis of their capacity leads
to successful completion of the project work. It is the longest step and
requires meticulous assignment of duties to different students or groups the
teacher must guide and encourage students. It is the duty of the teacher to
keep watch on the process of activities and instruct as and when requirement.
5. EVALUATION:
-
This is very
important step as; the students review the project and find out mistakes if
any. Self-Criticism is very important at this stage. The students discuss their
work and rectify their mistakes and recollect useful knowledge. The teacher
sees that the objectives of the project have been achieved.
6. RECORDING: -
The students keep
a complete record of entire activity. How they planned, discussions were held,
how duties are assigned, how criticism were made, which will help them in their
future work.
ROLE OF
TEACHER: -
1) Teacher must be a friend, guide and working partner.
2) Teacher must have through knowledge of individual student and allot
work accordingly.
3) Provide democratic atmosphere.
4) He should learn with students and should not claim to know everything.
5) He must be
inexperienced, initiative and process tact for creating positive ambience.
MERITS OF
PROJECT METHOD: -
1).
This method is based upon the laws of learning. They are as follows:
a.
Law of readiness
The
students are made ready to learn by creating interest, purpose and life
situations.
b.
Law of exercise
The
student’s carry out activities in the real life situations, the experiences
gained thus are very useful in the later life of the students.
c.
Law of effect
The
sense of success and satisfaction should follow the learning process. This law
makes it essential for the teacher to make the student satisfy and feel happy
in what he is learning.
2) It promotes Co-operative activity.
3) It arouses and maintains interest of students.
4) It keeps the students on freedom of thought and action while doing the
work.
5) It develops scientific attitude.
6) It widens the mental horizon of student.
7) It develops dignity of labour.
8) The students learn by self activity.
9) The correlation of subjects is best followed in this method. The
subjects are not treated as water tight compartments.
10) This is a
psychological method.
DEMERITS OF
PROJECT METHOD: -
1. The knowledge is not acquired in a sequential manner.
2. There may be a chance of overlapping of subject matter.
3. If not planned
and executed properly them, it may not be completed in time.
4. It is a time consuming process.
5. It may be a costly affair where in same items/things may not be
available at times.
6. There may be overdevelopment of individualism and under development of
co-operation and group responsibility.
7. If the topic in wrongly selected them the objective may not be
achieved.
8. It gives to students a superficial knowledge of great many things.
Therefore it is not suitable for all types of students.
9. This method is not suitable for a mature teacher.
10. The whole
syllabus, for higher classes cannot be accomplished with this method.
SUGGESTIONS TO
IMPROVE: -
1. The topic should have same educational value.
2. Project should be selected according to the student’s interest.
3. Entire course should not be planned only using this method.
4. The objectives of the project must be clear and defined.
5. Students should be assigned various duties according to their
capabilities.
6. The students
should be given freedom to interact among themselves.
PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
PROBLEM-SOLVING
METHOD
It is a method in which a specific problem is
given to the students and they are required to find out the solution through
objective reasoning and thinking. This method is also highly suitable for teaching
of science. In this method, the teacher is going to act as a guide and will be
in the background and the students should take active participation in finding
out the solution to the problem in hand.
The students should know what he is doing and
why he is doing. The problem should be of educational importance and should
have educational value and must be selected from the real life situation. Also
the problem chosen should be worthwhile and should have practical value. The problem
should be chosen in such a way that it can be fitted well in the present
curriculum organization in the school to avoid various administrative
difficulties.
Steps in problem-solving method
The following steps are involved in the
problem solving method.
A. Recognizing the problem
B. Defining and interpreting the problem
C. Collecting data related to the problem
D. Organizing and evaluating the data of
problem
E. Arriving at final conclusion
F. Verifying the result
A. Recognizing the problem
In this step, the teacher should organize a
discussion of a problem or problems with the students and based on the
discussion, the teacher should create a problem in such a way that the students
should feel that it is their own problem and they should solve it. The teacher
should organize the problem in such a manner that it should arouse student’s
interest to study and solve it.
B. Defining and interpreting the problem
The teacher should explain the problem given
to the students in detail or may be interpreted by the students themselves
through discussion. All the attributes constituting the problem must be made
clear to the students and the problem must be defined in a systematic manner.
C. Collection of data related to the problem
In this method, the teacher should suggest
the available resources like books, journals, periodicals, etc. with respect to
the problem given to the students. Also he must encourage the students to
collect data from different sources.
D. Organizing and evaluating the data of
problem
The data collected must be well organized by
the students and all the unwanted superfluous matter should be deleted. In this
stage, the teacher can help the students in arranging and classifying the
materials collected in a scientific way.
E. Arriving at final conclusion
After analyzing all the important points with
respect to the problem, a tentative solution may be discussed among the
students and finally they will arrive at a conclusion collectively.
F. Verification of the result
Finally the solution to the problem must be
verified by applying this result in a new situation to detect the discrepancies
if any, in the facts already discovered.
Merits
• The students will get
training in the art of solving a problem in actual life situations
• Reflective thinking and
the power of reasoning can be developed with this method
• Self-confidence among
the students can be developed through this method.
• It helps the students
in developing the power of critical judgement as they have to think a lot to
arrive at correct solution to the problem through practice
• It inculcates the habit
of open-mindedness and tolerance.
Demerits
• It is difficult for the
teachers to organize the content of science according to the need of the
students and therefore, he cannot always give real life problems.
• It is a time-consuming
process
• Textbooks and other
written materials are not available as per the guidelines of the problem-solving
method.
• This method is useful
only for the students studying higher classes and for those who have higher
level of thinking.
• All the lesson or
topics cannot be taught by his method.
PANEL DISCUSSION
PANEL DISCUSSION
Definition: It is a discussion in which
few persons ( the panel) carry on conversation in front of the audience. At the end of the discussion audience also
participates. The audience put important questions and the experts answers them
and clarify the points.
Purpose - Purpose of the panel
discussion is to reproduce the features of a small discussion group for the
benefit of a larger group.
OBJECTIVES
·
To provide information and new facts.
·
To analyze a problem from different angles
·
To identify the values.
·
To organize for mental recreation
TYPES OF PANEL DISCUSSIONS
1. Public
panel discussions
2. Educational
panel discussions
PUBLIC PANEL
DISCUSSIONS - These are organized for common men problems.
Objectives:
·
To provide factual information regarding current
problems
·
To determine social values
·
To recreate the common men
E.g. annual
budget, educated unemployment , increase in price of things.
EDUCATIONAL
PANEL DISCUSSIONS - Used in educational institutions to provide factual &
conceptual knowledge and clarification of certain theories and principles. Some times these are organized to find out the
solutions of certain problems
Objectives
-
·
To provide factual information and conceptual
knowledge
·
To give awareness of theories and principles
·
To provide solution of certain problems
Procedure of panel discussion
Types of members
in panel discussion - Instructor, Moderator, Panelists, Audience
INSTRUCTOR - Plays
most important role in panel discussion. Plans how , where , when panel
discussion will be organized. Prepares the schedule for panel discussion . Sometimes
rehearsal is also planned.
MODERATOR - Keeps
the discussion on the theme and encourages interaction among members.
Summarizes & highlights the points. Should have mastery on the theme or
problem of the discussion.
PANELISTS - There are 4 – 10 panelists in the
discussion . Members sits in a semi circle shape in front of the audience. The
moderator sits in the middle of the panelists.
All panelists must have mastery of the subject matter.
AUDIENCE - Audience are allowed to put question and
seek clarification. They can present their point of view and their experiences
regarding the theme. The panelists answers. In some situations moderator also
tries to answer the Qn.
At the end of
discussion , moderator summarizes the discussions and presents his point of
view. He expresses thanks to panelists and audience.
Characteristics of panel discussion -
Used in
university & college level to organize teaching at reflective level. Develops
the ability of problem solving. Helps to understand nature, problem or theme of
discussion. Develops ability of presentation of theme and giving their point of
view logically. Develops right type of attitude and ability to tolerate anti-
ideas of others. Helps in creative thinking. Develops manners of putting Qn.s
& answering them.
Advantages of panel discussion
·
Encourages social learning
·
Higher cognitive and affective objectives are
achieved
·
Used to develop ability of problem solving and
logical thinking
·
Develops capacity to respect others ideas and
feelings & ability to tolerate.
·
It provides opportunities of assimilation of
theme and content.
Limitations of panel discussion
·
There are chances to deviate from the theme of
discussion
·
some members may dominate
·
There is possibility to split the group in to
two subgroups ( for & against)
·
If panelist belong to different groups, it may
not create appropriate learning situation
How to organize effective panel discussions
- There should be a rehearsal before actual panel discussions . The moderator
should be a matured person and should have the full understanding of theme /
problem & should have full control over the situation. The seating
arrangement should be such that every one should be of equal distance &
should observe each other. Moderator should encourage constructive discussion
among panelists and audience.
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