BLOOMS TAXONOMY

A FOCUS ON HIGHER LEVEL THINKING SKILLS

Benjamin Bloom and his associates (In 1956) divided educational objectives into three domains-

·         Cognitive (about knowing)

·         Affective (about feeling, attitude, interests, values & believes)

·         Psychomotor (about doing)

COGNITIVE DOMAIN (Bloom,1956)

·         It represents the intellectual component of mental life.

·         This domain includes those objectives which deal with knowing, thinking and problem solving.

·         This domain is divided into six major classes of objectives.

1.    KNOWLEDGE

The lowest level of cognitive domain. Knowledge represents memory & constitutes recall & recognition of various facts, concepts, principles, theories & laws of biological sciences.

1.0 Knowledge levels

            1.10 Knowledge of specifics

                                    1.11 Knowledge of terminology

                                    1.12 Knowledge of specific facts

            1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics

                                    1.21 Knowledge of conventions

                                    1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences

                                    1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories

                                    1.24 Knowledge of criteria

                                    1.25 Knowledge of methodology

            1.30 Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field

                                    1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalizations

                                    1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures

2.    UNDERSTANDING OR COMPREHENSION

It is the second level of cognitive domain, and develops only after the development of knowledge in any particular area of study. The individual become capable of doing, -  Summarize or define the acquired knowledge in his own words, Interpret the acquired information, Classify various objects into groups based on some criteria., The individual relates two or more events, describes & explain events.

2.0 Comprehension levels

            2.1 Translation

            2.2 Interpretation

            2.3 Extrapolation

3.    APPLICATION

After having developed knowledge & comprehension of any concept, the individual is able to apply them in his day to day life. By applying the acquired knowledge & comprehension of various contents, the individual can solve many problems of daily life, of concrete & abstract situations.

3.0 Application levels

            3.1 Use of rules

            3.2 Use of methods

            3.3 Use of concepts

4.    ANALYSIS

It is the next higher level of cognitive ability. The individual develops the potential to break the whole into its various components & detect the relationship & organization of various parts. Students develop the ability to break a theory into its various inherent facts, concepts & principles.

4.0 Analysis levels

            4.1 Analysis of elements

            4.2 Analysis of relationships

            4.3 Analysis of organizational principles

5.    SYNTHESIS

It is the process of putting together various elements to make a whole. It is a complex ability at higher level of cognition which involves the creation of a new pattern or structure by manipulating various constituents. It has the elements of creativity in it.

5.0 Synthesis levels

            5.1 Production of a unique communication

            5.2 Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations

            5.3 Derivation of a set of abstract relations

6.    EVALUATION

It is the highest & the most complex cognitive ability, which involves all the five abilities. It is the process of judging the worth or value of a thing. It is both a qualitative & quantitative process. It develops decision making ability in the individual.

            6.0 Evaluation levels

            6.1 Evaluation in terms of internal evidence

            6.2 Judgments in terms of external criteria

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (krathwohl, Bloom, Masia – 1964)

This domain includes the development of feelings, interest, appreciation, attitudes and values.  This domain is divided into five major classes of objectives.

1.    RECEIVING

This is the ability of an individual to receive information. It includes attention, awareness, and willingness of an individual towards something. Receiving develops readiness towards listening, seeing & any kind of activity.

1.0  Receiving levels

1.1  Awareness

1.2  Willingness to receive

1.3  Controlled or selected attention

2.    RESPONDING

This is the second level objective. Regularity & punctuality in attention & motivation lead to responding. Receiving & responding form a two way communication process & thus facilitate teaching & learning.

2.0  Responding levels

2.1  Acquiescence in responding

2.2  Willingness to respond

2.3  Satisfaction in response

3.    VALUING

During the process of receiving & responding, an individual is naturally inclined towards making value judgment about the things he is concerned with. It may be an object, an event, an idea, a rule or modern aspects of our culture. An individual sets guidelines for controlling his own behavior. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values.

3.0  Valuing levels

3.1  Acceptance of a value

3.2  Preference for a value

3.3  Commitment

4.    ORGANIZATION

Through the process of valuing the individual imbibes various values from time to time. He analyses different imbibed values & finally constructs relatively enduring value system by organizing & synthesizing them. This leads to the formation of philosophy of life in the individual.

4.0  Organization levels

4.1  Conceptualization of a value

4.2  Organization of a value system

5.    CHARACTERIZATION

It is the highest level of objectives under affective domain.  At this stage, the individual develops a set of values, attitudes & beliefs for himself that helps in building his character & gives shape to his philosophy & total personality. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, and predictable.

5.0  Characterization levels

5.1  Generalized set

5.2  Characterization of value

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (Dave, 1975)

This domain includes those objectives of education which deals with manual & motor skills. The action abilities are classified under this domain. The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Five categories are found under this domain.

1.    IMITATION

-          Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality.

1.0  Imitation levels

1.1  Impulsion

1.2  Over repetition

2.    MANIPULATION

-          Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Manipulation of an act includes differentiating among various movements, & selecting the proper one.

2.0  Manipulation levels

2.1  Following direction

2.2  Selection

2.3  fixation

3.    PRECISION

-          Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent.

3.0  Precision levels

3.1  Reproduction

3.2  control

4.    ARTICULATION

-          Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency.

4.0  Articulation levels

4.1  Sequence

4.2  Harmony

5.    NATURALIZATION

-          Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it.

5.0  Naturalization levels

5.1  Automatism

5.2  Interiorisation

SCIENTIFIC APTITUDE

In the Dictionary of education (Good, 1959), aptitude is defined as “a pronounced innate capacity for or ability in a given line of endeavor such as particular art, school subject or vocation”. In this definition, an aptitude refers to an individual’s inborn potentialities or capacities which are indicative of some special abilities. ‘Aptitude’ in Great Illustrated Dictionary [in Rao, 1996) is considered as “a natural talent, skill or ability, quickness in learning and understanding”. In the above two definitions, it has been emphasized on that an aptitude refers to the capacity of an individual to be skilled in some work receiving formal and informal training.

Aptitude is not a specific skill; rather it is the capacity to acquire that specific skill (Freeman, 1965). If an individual has no aptitude for a particular type of work, he/she will not be skilled or proficient in that task in spite of training given to him/her. Whereas, right aptitude of a person, in any specific field, indicates his/her ability of acquiring skills in that particular field, on the basis of which a prediction may be made regarding the amount of improvement of that person in that field, which further training might effect (Rao, 1996).

Majority of the psychologists agree on the point that aptitude is innate, yet environmental factors on aptitude has also been recognized (Rao, 1996). As a matter of fact, aptitude is influenced by both biological and cultural factors of an individual.

“Scientific aptitude is a complex of interacting hereditary and environmental determinants producing predisposition or ability in science. Through these abilities, it is possible to predict future accomplishment of a person in science” defined by Rao, 1969. Researcher has also explained that scientific aptitude depends upon a variety of factors. Presence of certain study skills and persistence in learning science, motivation, satisfaction derived from learning science subjects, socio-economic factors and cultural background are some of the important determinants of scientific aptitude.

Muchinsky, 2004 has identified the following primary mental abilities in relation to aptitude in any specific field. These are –

(a) General intelligence – general learning ability

(b) Verbal ability – vocabulary

(c) Numerical ability – mathematical reasoning in problem solving

(d) Spatial ability – ability to visualize and rotate objects in space involving figures.

(e) Memory – ability to recall or recognize after a brief exposure to words, symbols, numbers, and figures.

(f) Perceptual speed – ability to work quickly and accurately in scanning and perceiving similarities and differences in words, numbers, and pictures (mostly related with clerical aptitude).

(g) Psychomotor ability – ability to move hands and figures and co-ordinate their movement.

Biological sciences curriculum study (BSCS)

In1959, biological sciences curriculum study (BSCS) project was launched by American Institute of Biological Science, university of Colorado in order to improve biology education in secondary schools. A steering committee of biological scientists, teachers and educators was constituted. The project was financed by National Science Foundation, USA.

Objectives of BSCS project

The BSCS project was started to design high school biology course with the objectives to:

·         Provide recent and latest knowledge in biological sciences

·         Develop understanding of the conceptual structure of biological sciences

·         Develop skills and processes of biology among the students

·         Create an opportunity to use inquiry approach in teaching and learning of biology

·         Prepare rich supplementary or support materials to enrich learning experiences in biological sciences

·         Present current status of biological sciences

Why BSCS project was needed

The organization of the BSCS project necessitated because of the inadequacies and defects felt in the ongoing or conventional biological sciences teaching. Following defects were observed in conventional biological science teaching.

            - Inclusion of dead or useless contents in syllabus

            - Little practical work

            - No correlation of biological sciences and physical science

            - Lack of integrated approach

            - No proper consideration of psychological aspects of teaching learning.

Organization of BSCS project

A group of 70 high school biology teachers and university level biologists prepared the preliminary materials for class room trials in about 100 schools spread throughout the country.

The materials were then revised and tested in 500 schools in the first phase (1961-62) and 950 schools in the following years.

The trial was done on 150000 students studying in approximately 1500 schools.

Final versions of the text book were prepared in 1963.

There were the following three independent versions of the textbook prepared with some common unifying themes:

a) The blue version, Biological Sciences- Molecules to Man

b) The green version, High School Biology

c) The yellow version, Biological sciences - An inquiry into life.

A teacher's handbook was also prepared.

In the conventional biology courses the emphasis was on the study of tissues, organs and organism. In the BSCS text, the emphasis shifted to molecular level, cellular level and the world biome. Thus the BSCS courses represented a fundamental change in organization of the content based on the development of science and technology, and its use in biology. The courses were interwoven around nine themes and three versions discussed here which represent the contemporary content and structure of the discipline.

The nine themes

They are as follows:

1. Change of living things through time, evolution

2. Diversity of type and unity of pattern in living things

3. The genetic continuity of life

4. Complementarity of organism and environment

5. The biological roots of behaviour

6. The complementarity of structure and function

7. Regulation and homeostasis

8. Science as enquiry

9. The intellectual history of biological concepts

The three versions

All the three versions of the textbook assume that secondary school biology provides the students with their last formal exposure to this discipline. A short descriptions of each version is as follows:

1. The blue version ( Biological sciences: Molecules to man) - It emphasizes the study of biology at molecular level with emphasis on recent advancement in physiology and biochemical evolution. The text presents a unifying approach to teaching biology and its organization from the simplest level to the most recent advanced level,ie. From molecule to man, with an eye on evolution. It is composed of seven sections:

·         The interaction of facts and ideas

·         The evolution of cell

·         The multi cellular organism: new problems of life

·         The multi cellular organism: problems of reproduction and variations

·         The multi cellular organism: problems of energy utilization

·         The multi cellular organism: problems of integration

·         Higher levels of organization

2. The green version: High school biology: - It introduces students to the living world and gives some idea about the methods of science. At the same time it provides some useful ideas of biology. In the green version, one studies biology from ecological and behavioral point of biology. In the green version, one studies biology from ecological and behavioral point of view. A major emphasis is placed on the biological community and the world biome. The book covers following six sections:

·         The living world: the biosphere

·         Diversity in the biosphere

·         Patterns in the biosphere

·         Within the individual organism

·         Adaptation

·         Man and biosphere

3. The yellow version (Biological Sciences: An Inquiry into life):- It attempts a balance coverage of biology for high school and early college courses. The yellow version is concerned with the cellular level of organization, and the content is organized around the concepts of biological unity, diversity and continuity. It covers following seven areas:

·         Cell

·         Microorganisms

·         Plant life

·         Animal life

·         Genetic continuity

·         Evolution

·         Ecology

These three versions aim at providing all that is known as modern biology. Each version has its own flavor and thematic approach. All the three versions lay emphasis on laboratory work which develops an understanding of scientific enquiry. Theory and practice are integrated very well. Learners are given the opportunity to appreciate the work of biologists and their contribution.

The fourth version: A special course for low achievers

The BSCS project developed additional text for slow learners. This book is known as Biological sciences: Pattern and process. It is also called fourth version. The text provides content in simple language and easy methods of learning have been considered. Slow learners get the opportunity to learn through activities, laboratory work and practical. Programmed learning is used to accelerate the learning of slow learners and to simplify the content. The fourth version is used in American schools in class ten.